Mexico is a nation of immense cultural and historical richness, shaped by its ancient civilizations, such as the Aztec and Maya, and the profound impact of Spanish colonialism. Following its Revolution in the early 20th century, Mexico grappled with understanding its identity, or mexicanidad. This concept sought to unify a country marked by the colonial grouping of diverse indigenous peoples, regional differences, and the mestizo heritage resulting from the blending of Indigenous and European cultures. Unlike its northern neighbour, the United States, whose identity was shaped by immigration and expansion, Mexico embraced its indigenous and colonial past as integral to its national character. The country’s regional and cultural differences remain central to shaping the modern idea of mexicanidad, reflecting the dynamic and diverse essence of Mexico today.

Ciudad de México (CDMX)

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Ciudad de México (CDMX) (Mexico City)

Mexico City (Ciudad de México or CDMX in Spanish) is the capital of Mexico and one of the largest cities in the world. Built on the ruins of Tenochtitlán, the ancient capital of the Aztec Empire, it has been a centre of power, culture, and transformation for centuries.

Founded by the Mexica in 1325 on an island in Lake Texcoco, Tenochtitlán was renowned for its advanced engineering and sprawling temples, including the Templo Mayor. The Spanish conquest in 1521 saw the city’s destruction and its rebirth as Mexico City, the colonial heart of New Spain.

The colonial period established Mexico City as a hub of administration, trade, and culture, with the Zócalo (Plaza de la Constitución) emerging as the city’s focal point. Surrounded by the grand Metropolitan Cathedral and the National Palace, the Zócalo became a symbol of colonial power and later, a site for revolutionary discourse. The city’s colonial architecture, often blending European and Indigenous styles, still defines much of its historic centre.

In the 20th century, Mexico City became the epicentre of mexicanidad, the post-revolutionary search for a cohesive national identity. Artists such as Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo captured the spirit of this era, combining Indigenous traditions with social and political themes. Rivera’s murals in the National Palace chart the story of Mexico’s complex history, while Kahlo’s works at La Casa Azul, now a museum, offer an intimate look into the life of one of Mexico’s most iconic figures and her grapple with identity.

Teotihuacán

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Teotihuacán

Teotihuacán, located near modern-day Mexico City, is one of the most significant pre-Hispanic archaeological sites in the Americas. Sometimes referred to in Spanish as La Ciudad de los Dioses, this ancient metropolis thrived centuries before the Aztecs and played a central role in Mesoamerican history.

Emerging around 200 BC, Teotihuacán grew into one of the largest cities in the ancient world, with a population estimated to exceed 100,000 at its height between 100 and 600 AD. Despite its proximity to the Aztec heartland, Teotihuacán's origins are distinct, with evidence pointing to a melting pot of Mesoamerican influences, including those of the Zapotec and Maya. By the time the Aztecs encountered it, the city was already in ruins, leading them to mythologise it as the birthplace of the gods and a sacred site imbued with divine significance.

Teotihuacán’s layout and monumental structures are among its most intriguing features. The Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, along with the Avenue of the Dead, were meticulously aligned with celestial events, demonstrating an advanced understanding of astronomy and its integration into spirituality. These alignments, combined with the mystery surrounding its builders, have fuelled modern conspiracy theories, including the "Ancient Aliens" hypothesis, although archaeologists emphasise its achievements are the product of human ingenuity.

Following its discovery by the Aztecs, they adopted Teotihuacán into their mythology, venerating it as a sacred place where the gods orchestrated the creation of the universe. This inspired their own cosmology and empire-building efforts, positioning Teotihuacán as a symbol of continuity and a golden age of civilisation that legitimised their spiritual and political dominance.

In the 20th century, Teotihuacán became central to mexicanidad, the cultural movement to define Mexican identity. Figures like Octavio Paz mourned the ruins in works such as Himno entre ruinas, portraying it as a poignant reminder of pre-European greatness and the erasure of Indigenous identity during colonisation. Frida Kahlo, too, drew upon its imagery in works like Self-Portrait on the Borderline Between Mexico and the United States, contrasting Mexico’s rich pre-Hispanic heritage with the industrialised culture of its northern neighbour.

Guadalajara

Guadalajara, the capital of Jalisco and Mexico’s second-largest city, is a cornerstone of the country’s cultural identity. Founded by the Spanish in 1542, the city became an important colonial centre, strategically located along trade routes connecting the interior to the Pacific coast.

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Today, Guadalajara is celebrated as the birthplace of many symbols of Mexican culture, including mariachi music and tequila.

Guadalajara’s historical significance is evident in its city centre, where landmarks like the Catedral de Guadalajara and the Instituto Cultural Cabañas, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, stand as testaments to its colonial past. The city also played a pivotal role in Mexico’s independence movement, as it was here that Miguel Hidalgo issued a landmark abolition of slavery decree in 1810, reflecting its importance in shaping the nation’s trajectory.

Beyond its history, Guadalajara thrives as a cultural powerhouse. The city is home to the renowned International Book Fair (Feria Internacional del Libro), the largest of its kind in Latin America. Moreover, its annual mariachi festival celebrates Jalisco’s contribution to Mexico’s musical heritage, drawing performers and enthusiasts from around the world.

Monterrey

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Monterrey

Monterrey, the capital of Nuevo León, was founded in 1596 by Spanish settler Diego de Montemayor. Its early years were marked by challenges, including frequent conflicts with Indigenous groups who resisted Spanish colonisation. The region’s arid climate and scarce resources further hindered its initial growth, making survival difficult for the settlers.

In the modern era, Monterrey has emerged as one of Mexico’s most industrialised cities. Its strategic location near the U.S. border, coupled with abundant natural resources, allowed the development of robust steel, cement, and manufacturing industries. These sectors have propelled Monterrey into a position of economic significance, making it a hub of innovation and commerce.

Monterrey’s rapid industrial growth has left a lasting mark on its character, turning it into one of Mexico’s leading economic powerhouses. This transformation has drawn people from across the country, creating a diverse and dynamic city that balances modern industry with traditional northern Mexican roots. Its local cuisine, music, and festivals continue to reflect the region’s heritage, even as the city evolves.

Chichén Itzá

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Chichén Itzá

Chichén Itzá, nestled in Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, is one of the most significant archaeological sites of the ancient Maya civilization. Flourishing between 600 and 1200 AD, it served as a political, cultural, and religious hub, reflecting the ingenuity and cosmopolitan nature of Mesoamerican societies.

At Chichén Itzá's core is El Castillo, or the Temple of Kukulcán, a pyramid that embodies the Maya’s astronomical knowledge and engineering skill. Its design aligns with celestial events, most famously during the spring and autumn equinoxes, when light creates the illusion of a serpent descending its steps (a tribute to Kukulcán, the feathered serpent deity). This remarkable precision underscores the Maya’s spiritual connection to the cosmos and their advanced engineering and astrology.

The site’s architecture reveals a blend of Maya traditions and Toltec influences, reflecting its importance as a hub of trade and cultural exchange. Structures like the Great Ball Court, the largest of its kind in Mesoamerica, and the Sacred Cenote, used for ritual offerings, underline the city’s spiritual and ceremonial significance. These elements speak to the deep integration of religion, science, and governance in Maya life.

By the time of the Spanish arrival, Chichén Itzá had long been in decline, likely due to internal unrest or environmental challenges. However, its enduring influence shaped the cultural memory of the region, and it remains an emblem of Maya ingenuity.

Today, Chichén Itzá stands as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the New Seven Wonders of the World. While visitors marvel at its scale and precision, ongoing archaeological research continues to uncover new insights into this remarkable civilisation.

Tulum

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Tulum

Tulum, a jewel of the Riviera Maya, is one of Mexico’s most famous archaeological sites. Nestled along the Caribbean coastline, its dramatic setting on limestone cliffs overlooking turquoise waters has made it a symbol of the ancient Maya’s architectural and cultural ingenuity.

The ruins, once a vital coastal outpost, served as a key hub for trade throughout Mesoamerica. Goods like jade and textiles flowed through Tulum, linking it to cities like Chichen Itza and Cobá. Tulum'sTemplo de los Frescos offers a glimpse into the Maya’s advanced knowledge of astronomy, with intricate carvings and murals depicting their cosmological beliefs. This blend of spiritual and scientific significance highlights Tulum’s role as a sacred and strategic site in Maya civilisation.

Tulum’s decline began with the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century. Diseases brought by Europeans devastated indigenous populations, who lacked immunity to illnesses like smallpox. This collapse marked the end of Tulum as a functioning city, though its ruins endured as a testament to the Maya civilisation’s achievements.

In modern times, Tulum’s ruins attract millions of visitors annually, many of whom come from the United States. The town’s popularity has grown exponentially, blending historical tourism with its reputation for pristine beaches and a bohemian lifestyle. However, this influx has raised significant concerns about the balance between conservation and development, as the pressure of mass tourism from America risks overshadowing the preservation of Tulum’s cultural and historical legacy.

Palenque

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Palenque

Palenque, hidden within the dense jungles of Chiapas, stands as one of Mexico’s most remarkable archaeological sites. Known as Lakamha ("Big Water") in Maya, it flourished during the Classic Maya period (250–900 AD), particularly under the reign of King Pakal in the 7th century.

The site is famed for its intricate architecture and inscriptions, with the Templo de las Inscripciones housing the elaborately carved tomb of Pakal. Its discovery shed light on Maya burial traditions and their advanced understanding of astronomy.

While it is smaller than other Maya cities like Chichén Itzá, Palenque is unparalleled in its artistic and historical significance. Its hieroglyphs have been vital to understanding Maya culture, recording details of rulers, rituals, and political dynamics.

The city was abandoned around the 10th century and overrun by the jungle until it was rediscovered in the 18th century. We are still discovering more about this important site as modern archaeological techniques, including LiDAR, continue to uncover previously hidden structures, hinting at the site’s even greater scale and importance.

Cancún

Cancún, located on the northeastern tip of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, has transformed from a small fishing village into one of the world’s most visited tourist destinations. Developed in the 1970s as part of a government initiative, it has become synonymous with mass tourism.

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Promoting an image of luxury with its white-sand beaches and sprawling resort complexes, Cancún attracts millions of visitors annually, particularly from the USA. However, the sheer volume of tourism, combined with issues like organised crime, reveals a more complex reality beneath its glossy exterior.

Despite this, Cancún serves as an important gateway to the ancient Maya world. Its proximity to Chichén Itzá, one of the New Seven Wonders of the World, and Tulum allows visitors to explore the Yucatán’s rich archaeological history. The cenotes scattered across the region, once revered by the Maya as sacred portals to the underworld, add a layer of cultural depth to what is often seen as a purely recreational destination.

Mérida

Mérida

Mérida, the capital of Mexico’s Yucatán state, is a city steeped in history and culture. Founded in 1542 by Spanish conquistadors on the site of a former Maya city, T'Hó, Mérida reflects centuries of cultural fusion.

The city’s vibrant identity is rooted in its rich Maya heritage and colonial past. Many locals still speak Yucatec Maya, a testament to the region’s enduring Indigenous traditions. The historic centre, with its grand plazas, pastel-coloured facades, and colonial churches built with stones repurposed from ancient Maya structures, tells a story of cultural transformation and adaptation.

Throughout its history, Mérida has also been a hub of intellectual and economic activity. In the 19th century, it became a wealthy centre for the henequén trade (a plant used to produce rope and textiles), which brought prosperity to the region. The mansions along Paseo de Montejo, Mérida’s grand boulevard, stand as reminders of this era of economic power. Today, the city’s vibrant cultural scene includes events such as Vaquería, a traditional festival featuring regional dances and music that celebrates Yucatán’s history and folkloric traditions.

Campeche

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Campeche

Campeche, a coastal city on the Yucatán Peninsula, stands as one of Mexico’s best-preserved colonial gems. Founded in 1540 by Spanish settlers, it became a vital port in Spain’s colonial trade network. Its colourful streets and ornate mansions reflect the wealth generated by the trade of goods like dyewood (palo de tinte) and other resources extracted from the region.

During the 17th century, Campeche faced frequent attacks from pirates, particularly English privateers, alongside raiders from France and the Netherlands. These incursions, aimed at disrupting Spanish trade, targeted the port for its strategic position and the riches it exported. In response, the Spanish Crown fortified the city with imposing walls, bastions, and defensive structures, which still encircle much of the historic centre today. These fortifications not only safeguarded Campeche but also became a defining feature of its identity, leading to its designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Campeche’s colonial architecture and maritime history offer a window into the complexities of Mexico’s past. The city’s well-preserved fortifications and colourful streets stand as enduring reminders of its strategic importance during the colonial era, showcasing the enduring Spanish influence that shaped the country's identity.

Puebla

Puebla, officially Puebla de Zaragoza, is one of Mexico’s most historically significant cities. Located southeast of CDMX (Ciudad de México), it was founded by Spanish colonists in 1531 and quickly became a major hub linking the port of Veracruz with the capital.

The city is renowned for its role in Mexican history, particularly as the site of the 1862 Battle of Puebla, where Mexican forces, under General Ignacio Zaragoza, achieved a surprising victory over the French army. While the event is commemorated annually on Cinco de Mayo (5th of May), this celebration is primarily significant within Puebla itself but is not widely observed across Mexico. In contrast, the date has taken on a broader cultural significance in the United States as a celebration of Mexican heritage.

Puebla is also celebrated for its colonial charm and distinctive culinary contributions. Its historic centre, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is home to some of Mexico’s most beautiful baroque architecture, including the Catedral de Puebla and the Biblioteca Palafoxiana, one of the oldest libraries in the Americas. The city is often regarded as the birthplace of mole poblano, a rich, complex sauce that has become a hallmark of Mexican gastronomy.

Oaxaca

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Oaxaca de Juárez

Established by the Spanish in 1529 as a strategic settlement, the city was built on lands already significant to the Zapotec and Mixtec civilisations. This convergence of cultures has profoundly shaped Oaxaca’s identity.

The city’s historic centre, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, highlights this cultural fusion, with landmarks such as the Santo Domingo Church and its adjacent cultural centre, which houses artefacts from Monte Albán, a nearby pre-Hispanic Zapotec city. Oaxaca’s markets and artisans continue to reflect centuries-old traditions, showcasing crafts, textiles, and cuisine rooted in indigenous practices. These elements stand as enduring symbols of the region’s history, even as the city became a colonial hub.

The Guelaguetza festival, held each July, embodies Oaxaca’s cultural richness. Originating from Zapotec traditions of reciprocity and communal celebration, it brings together diverse indigenous communities from across the state to share dances, music, and costumes that reflect their unique identities. The festival’s continued significance underscores Oaxaca’s role as a centre for preserving and celebrating Mexico’s indigenous heritage, despite the city's origins being tied to Spanish colonisers.

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